Völuspá

The Prophecy of the Seeress

Valans spådom

Sixty-six stanzas that span cosmogony, mythic history, and Ragnarok, delivered as a seeress's vision of the world's course

Summary

A

A seeress's vision of the world's course, from Ginnungagap to Ragnarok and the world that follows. The poem is framed: Odin himself has sought the seeress out to make her speak (st. 1, 28), and she answers in a sequence of remembered images that shifts gradually from past to prophecy.

The opening stanzas (1–8) contain the creation. Then follow the catalogue of dwarves (9–16), the making of humans (17–18), Yggdrasil and the norns (19–20), and the outbreak of the first war through the burning of Gullveig (21–24). The middle section (25–44) weaves individual myths together: the bargain with the wall-builder, Heimdallr's horn, Odin's sacrifice, the binding of Loki, the signs of the world's end. Ragnarok runs across stanzas 45–58. The close (59–66) describes the earth rising from the sea, the surviving gods returning to Iðavöllr, a new golden hall at Gimlé, and a final image of Níðhöggr flying away with corpses.

Völuspá is the most quoted of the Eddic poems and the one that provides the fullest frame for Old Norse cosmology. It is also the most debated. Christian influence is evident in several passages (especially in the Ragnarok imagery), but the extent of that influence remains an active scholarly question.

The story

Hljóðs bið ek allarhelgar kindir,meiri ok minnimögu Heimdalar;viltu at ek, Valföðr,vel fyr teljaforn spjöll fira,þau er fremst um man.
Silence I askof all sacred kindreds,greater and lessersons of Heimdallr;you would have it, Valfather,that I tell wellthe ancient tales of men,those I remember from the first.

English translation: own translation.

Ek man jötnaár um borna,þá er forðum mikfœdda höfðu;níu man ek heima,níu íviðjur,mjötvið mæranfyr mold neðan.
I remember giantsborn in ancient times,those who long agohad nurtured me;nine worlds I remember,nine roots,the famed measuring-treedeep beneath the mold.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 1
Ár var alda,þat er ekki var,vara sandr né særné svalar unnir;jörð fannsk ævané upphiminn,gap var ginnunga,en gras hvergi.
In the beginning of agesthere was nothing,no sand, no sea,no cool waves;earth was not foundnor heaven above,a yawning gap there was,and grass nowhere.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 9
Áðr Burs synirbjöðum upp um hófu,þeir er Miðgarðmæran skópu;sól skein sunnaná salar steina,þá var grund gróingrœnum lauki.
Before Bur's sonslifted up the lands,they who fair Midgardshaped,the sun shone from the southon the hall's stones,and the ground was overgrownwith green leek.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 11
Sól varp sunnan,sinni mána,hendi inni hœgriof himinjöður;sól þat né vissihvar hón sali átti,stjörnur þat né vissuhvar þær staði áttu,máni þat né vissihvat hann megins átti.
The sun cast from the south,moon's companion,her right handover heaven's rim;the sun knew notwhere she had her halls,the stars knew notwhere they had their stations,the moon knew notwhat power he held.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 11
Þá gengu regin öllá rökstóla,ginnheilug goð,ok of þat gættusk;nótt ok niðjumnöfn um gáfu,morgin hétuok miðjan dag,undorn ok aftan,árum at telja.
Then all the powers wentto the seats of judgement,most holy gods,and took counsel:to night and her kinthey gave names,they named morningand midday,afternoon and evening,for the reckoning of years.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 19
Hittusk æsirá Iðavelli,þeir er hörg ok hofhátimbruðu;afla lögðu,auð smíðuðu,tangir skópuok tól gerðu.
The Æsir meton Iðavöllr,they who built highshrines and temples;they laid forges,smithied gold,shaped tongsand made tools.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 20
Tefldu í túni,teitir váru,var þeim vettergisvant ór gulli,uns þrjár kvámuþursa meyjarámáttkar mjökór Jötunheimum.
They played at tables in the court,they were glad,nothing was wantingof gold,until three came,giantesses,mighty indeed,from Jötunheimr.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 14
Þá gengu regin öllá rökstóla,ginnheilug goð,ok of þat gættusk,hverr skyldi dvergadróttir skepjaór Brimis blóðiok ór Bláins leggjum.
Then all the powers wentto the seats of judgement,most holy gods,and took counsel:who shouldshape the races of dwarvesfrom Brimir's bloodand from Bláinn's limbs.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 14
Þar var Móðsognirmæztr um orðinndverga allra,en Durinn annarr;þeir mannlíkunmörg um gerðu,dvergar ór jörðu,sem Durinn sagði.
There Móðsognir becamethe foremostof all dwarves,and Durinn the second;many human likenessesthey made,dwarves from the earth,as Durinn said.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 14
Nýi, Niði,Norðri, Suðri,Austri, Vestri,Alþjófr, Dvalinn,Nár ok Náinn,Nípingr, Dáinn,Bífurr, Bafurr,Bömburr, Nóri,Ánn ok Ánarr,Ái, Mjöðvitnir.
Nýi, Niði,Norðri, Suðri,Austri, Vestri,Alþjófr, Dvalinn,Nár and Náinn,Nípingr, Dáinn,Bífurr, Bafurr,Bömburr, Nóri,Ánn and Ánarr,Ái, Mjöðvitnir.

English translation: own translation.

Veigr ok Gandalfr,Vindalfr, Þráinn,Þekkr ok Þorinn,Þrór, Vitr ok Litr,Nýr ok Nýráðr,nú hefi ek dverga,Reginn ok Ráðsviðr,rétt um talða.
Veigr and Gandalfr,Vindalfr, Þráinn,Þekkr and Þorinn,Þrór, Vitr and Litr,Nýr and Nýráðr,now have I the dwarves,Reginn and Ráðsviðr,rightly reckoned.

English translation: own translation.

Fíli, Kíli,Fundinn, Náli,Hefti, Víli,Hannarr, Svíurr,Billingr, Brúni,Bíldr ok Búri,Frár, Hornbori,Frægr ok Lóni,Aurvangr, Jari,Eikinskjaldi.
Fíli, Kíli,Fundinn, Náli,Hefti, Víli,Hannarr, Svíurr,Billingr, Brúni,Bíldr and Búri,Frár, Hornbori,Frægr and Lóni,Aurvangr, Jari,Eikinskjaldi.

English translation: own translation.

Mál er dvergaí Dvalins liðiljóna kindumtil Lofars telja;þeir er sóttufrá SalarsteiniAurvanga sjöttil Jöruvalla.
It is time the dwarvesof Dvalinn's hostfor the kindreds of mendown to Lofarr to reckon;they who set outfrom Salarsteinn,the fields of Aurvangr,to Jöruvellir.

English translation: own translation.

Þar var Draupnirok Dolgþrasir,Hár, Haugspori,Hlévangr, Glóinn,Dóri, Óri,Dúfr, Andvari,Skirfir, Virfir,Skáfiðr, Ái.
There was Draupnirand Dolgþrasir,Hár, Haugspori,Hlévangr, Glóinn,Dóri, Óri,Dúfr, Andvari,Skirfir, Virfir,Skáfiðr, Ái.

English translation: own translation.

Alfr ok Yngvi,Eikinskjaldi,Fjalarr ok Frosti,Finnr ok Ginnarr;þat mun æ uppi,meðan öld lifir,langniðja talLofars hafat.
Alfr and Yngvi,Eikinskjaldi,Fjalarr and Frosti,Finnr and Ginnarr;that will be remembered always,while ages live,the long line of descentthat Lofarr had.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 18
Uns þrír kvámuór því liðiöflgir ok ástkiræsir at húsi;fundu á landilítt megandiAsk ok Embluörlöglausa.
Until three camefrom that company,mighty and loving,Æsir, to the dwelling;they found on land,with little strength,Askr and Embla,without destiny.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 18
Önd þau né áttu,óð þau né höfðu,lá né lætiné litu góða;önd gaf Óðinn,óð gaf Hœnir,lá gaf Lóðurrok litu góða.
Breath they had not,spirit they had not,neither blood nor voicenor good colour;breath gave Óðinn,spirit gave Hœnir,blood gave Lóðurrand good colour.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 16
Ask veit ek standa,heitir Yggdrasill,hár baðmr, ausinnhvíta auri;þaðan koma döggvarþærs í dala falla,stendr æ yfir grœnnUrðarbrunni.
An ash I know standing,called Yggdrasill,a tall tree, sprinkledwith white clay;from there come the dewsthat fall in the valleys,it stands ever greenover the well of Urðr.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 17
Þaðan koma meyjar,margs vitandi,þrjár ór þeim saler und þolli stendr;Urð hétu eina,aðra Verðandi,skáru á skíði,Skuld ina þriðju;þær lög lögðu,þær líf kurualda börnum,örlög seggja.
From there come maidens,knowing much,three, from the hallthat stands beneath the tree;Urðr they called one,the second Verðandi,they scored on wood,Skuld the third;they laid down laws,they chose livesfor the children of ages,the fates of men.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 20
Þat man hon fólkvígfyrst í heimi,er Gullveigugeirum studduok í höll Hárshana brenndu,þrysvar brenndu,þrysvar borna,oft, ósjaldan,þó hon enn lifir.
She remembers the warfirst in the world,when they Gullveigpierced with spearsand in the hall of Hárburned her,three times burned,three times reborn,again and again,yet she lives still.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 20
Heiði hana hétu,hvars til húsa kom,völu velspáa,vitti hon ganda;seið hon, hvars hon kunni,seið hon hugleikin,æ var hon anganillrar brúðar.
Heiðr they called her,wherever she came to houses,a seeress who saw well;she mastered wand-magic;she practised seiðr wherever she could,she practised seiðr in trance,she was always a delightto wicked women.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 20
Þá gengu regin öllá rökstóla,ginnheilug goð,ok of þat gættusk,hvárt skyldu æsirafráð gjalda,eða skyldu goðin öllgildi eiga.
Then all the powers wentto the seats of judgement,most holy gods,and took counsel:whether the Æsir shouldpay tribute,or whether all the godsshould share in the recompense.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 20
Fleygði Óðinnok í fólk um skaut,þat var enn fólkvígfyrst í heimi;brotinn var borðveggrborgar ása,knáttu vanir vígspávöllu sporna.
Odin castand shot into the host,that was still the war,the first in the world;broken was the board-wallof the Æsir's fortress,the Vanir, battle-wise,trod the field.

English translation: own translation.

See creation, moment 19
Þá gengu regin öllá rökstóla,ginnheilug goð,ok of þat gættusk,hverr hefði loft alltlævi blandit,eða ætt jötunsÓðs mey gefna.
Then all the powers wentto the seats of judgement,most holy gods,and took counsel:who had all the airtainted with evil,or to the kin of giantsgiven Óðr's maiden.

English translation: own translation.

Þórr einn þar váþrunginn móði,hann sjaldan sitrer hann slíkt of fregn;á gengusk eiðar,orð ok sœri,mál öll meginlig,er á meðal fóru.
Thor alone struck there,swelling with rage,he seldom sits stillwhen he hears such things;broken were the oaths,words and pledges,all the mighty agreementsthat had passed between them.

English translation: own translation.

Veit hon Heimdallarhljóð um fólgitund heiðvönumhelgum baðmi;á sér hon ausaskaurgum forsiaf veði Valföðrs.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
She knows that Heimdallr'shearing lies hiddenbeneath the bright,holy tree;she sees a stream pourin a muddy torrentfrom Valfather's pledge.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Ein sat hon úti,þá er inn aldni kom,Yggjungr ása,ok í augu leit:"Hvers fregnið mik?Hví freistið mín?Allt veit ek, Óðinn,hvar þú auga falt,í inum mæraMímisbrunni."
Alone she sat outside,when the aged one came,Terror of the gods,and looked into her eyes:"Why do you question me?Why do you test me?I know it all, Odin,where you hid your eye,in the famedwell of Mímir."

English translation: own translation.

Drekkr mjöð Mímirmorgin hverjanaf veði Valföðrs.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
Mead drinks Mímirevery morningfrom Valfather's pledge.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Sá hon valkyrjurvítt um komnar,görvar at ríðatil Goðþjóðar;Skuld helt skildi,en Skögul önnur,Gunnr, Hildr, Göndulok Geirskögul.Nú eru talðarnönnur Herjaföðrs,görvar at ríðagrund, valkyrjur.
She saw valkyriescome from afar,ready to rideto Goðþjóð;Skuld held the shield,and Skögul another,Gunnr, Hildr, Gönduland Geirskögul.Now are reckonedthe maidens of Herfather,ready to ridethe ground, valkyries.

English translation: own translation.

Sá hon Baldri,blóðgum tívur,Óðins barni,örlög fólgin;stóð um vaxinnvöllum hærimjór ok mjök fagrmistilteinn.
She saw for Baldr,the bleeding god,Odin's child,destiny hidden;there stood, grownhigher than the fields,slender and very fair,the mistletoe.

English translation: own translation.

Varð af þeim meiði,er mér sýndisk,harmflaug hættlig,Höðr nam skjóta.
From that treewhich appeared to mecame a shaft of grievous harm;Höðr began to shoot.

English translation: own translation.

Baldrs bróðir varof borinn snimma,sá nam Óðins sonreinnættr vega.
Baldr's brother wasborn swiftly,that son of Odinfought when one night old.

English translation: own translation.

Þá kná Frigggráta í Fensölumvá Valhallar.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
Then Frigg weptin Fensalirfor Valhöll's woe.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Hapt sá hon liggjaund Hvera lundilægjarns líkiLoka áþekkjan;þar sitr Sigyn,þeygi um sínumver velglýjuð.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
Bound she saw lyingbeneath Hveralundra treacherous-shaped formlike unto Loki;there sits Sigyn,yet not gladfor her husband.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Á fellr austanum eitrdalasöxum ok sverðum,Slíðr heitir sú.
A river falls from the eastthrough venom-dales,with knives and swords:Slíðr is its name.

English translation: own translation.

Stóð fyr norðaná Niðavöllumsalr ór gulliSindra ættar;en annarr stóðá Ókólni,bjórsalr jötuns,en sá Brimir heitir.
To the north stoodon Niðavöllra golden hallof Sindri's kin;and another stoodon Ókólnir,the giant's beer-hall,and that one is called Brimir.

English translation: own translation.

Sal sá hon standasólu fjarriNáströndu á,norðr horfa dyrr;féllu eitrdroparinn um ljóra,sá er undinn salrorma hryggjum.
A hall she saw standingfar from the sun,on Náströnd,its doors facing north;drops of venom fellin through the smoke-hole;that hall is wovenof serpents' spines.

English translation: own translation.

Sá hon þar vaðaþunga straumamenn meinsvaraok morðvargaok þanns annars glepreyrarúnu;þar saug Níðhöggrnái framgengna,sleit vargr vera.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
She saw there wadingthrough heavy streamsperjurersand murder-wolvesand those who seduceanother's sworn beloved;there Níðhöggr suckedthe corpses of the dead,the wolf tore at men.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Austr sat in aldnaí Járnviðiok fœddi þarFenris kindir;verðr af þeim öllumeinna nökkurrtungls tjúgarií trolls hami.
In the east sat the old onein Járnviðrand bore thereFenrir's kin;of them all, onein particularwill seize the moonin a troll's shape.

English translation: own translation.

Fyllisk fjörvifeigra manna,rýðr ragna sjötrauðum dreyra;svört verða sólskinof sumur eptir,veðr öll válynd.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
He gorges on the livesof doomed men,reddens the gods'dwellings with blood;the sunshine turns blackin the summers after,all weather treacherous.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Sat þar á haugiok sló hörpugýgjar hirðir,glaðr Eggþér;gól um hánumí gaglviðifagrrauðr hani,sá er Fjalarr heitir.
There sat on a moundand struck the harp,the giantesses' herdsman,glad Eggþér;above him crowedin the bird-wooda fair-red cock,the one called Fjalarr.

English translation: own translation.

Gól um ásumGullinkambi,sá vekr hölðaat Herjaföðrs;en annarr gelrfyr jörð neðan,sótrauðr haniat sölum Heljar.
Among the gods crowedGullinkambi,who wakes the warriorsat Herfather's;and another crowsbeneath the earth,a soot-red cockin the halls of Hel.

English translation: own translation.

Geyr nú Garmr mjökfyr Gnipahelli,festr mun slitnaen freki renna.Fjölð veit hon frœða,fram sé ek lengraum ragna rökrömm sigtíva.
Now Garmr howls loudbefore Gnipahellir,the fetters will burstand the wolf run free.Much she knows of lore,further ahead I seethe doom of the powers,the battle-keen victory-gods.

English translation: own translation.

Brœðr munu berjaskok at bönum verðask,munu systrungarsifjum spilla;hart er í heimi,hórdómr mikill,skeggöld, skálmöld,skildir ro klofnir,vindöld, vargöld,áðr veröld steypisk;mun engi maðröðrum þyrma.
Brothers will fightand become each other's bane,cousins willbreak kinship;hard it is in the world,whoredom rife,axe-age, sword-age,shields are cloven,wind-age, wolf-age,before the world falls;no man willspare another.

English translation: own translation.

Leika Míms synir,en mjötuðr kyndiskat inu gallaGjallarhorni;hátt blæss Heimdallr,horn er á lopti,mælir Óðinnvið Míms höfuð.
Mímir's sons play,and fate is kindledat the soundingGjallarhorn;loud blows Heimdallr,the horn raised high,Odin speakswith Mímir's head.

English translation: own translation.

Skelfr Yggdrasilsaskr standandi,ymr it aldna tré,en jötunn losnar;hræðask allirá helvegum,áðr Surtar þannsefi of gleypir.
Yggdrasil's ashshudders as it stands,the ancient tree groansand the giant breaks free;all trembleon the roads to Hel,before Surtr'skinsman swallows it.

English translation: own translation.

Hrymr ekr austan,hefisk lind fyrir,snýsk Jörmungandrí jötunmóði;ormr knýr unnir,en ari hlakkar,slítr nái niðfölr,Naglfar losnar.
Hrymr drives from the east,shield held before him,Jörmungandr writhesin giant-fury;the serpent churns the wavesand the eagle shrieks,the pale one tears corpses,Naglfar is loosed.

English translation: own translation.

Geyr nú Garmr mjökfyr Gnipahelli,festr mun slitnaen freki renna.
Now Garmr howls loudbefore Gnipahellir,the fetters will burstand the wolf run free.

English translation: own translation.

Kjóll ferr austan,koma munu Muspellsof lög lýðir,en Loki stýrir;fara fíflmegirmeð freka allir,þeim er bróðirBýleists í för.
A ship sails from the east,Muspell's peoplecome across the sea,and Loki steers;the monstrous ones farewith the wolf, all of them,with them isBýleistr's brother on the march.

English translation: own translation.

Surtr ferr sunnanmeð sviga lævi,skínn af sverðisól valtíva;grjótbjörg gnata,en gífr rata,troða halir helveg,en himinn klofnar.
Surtr comes from the southwith the scourge of branches,from his sword shinesthe sun of the war-gods;rock-cliffs crash together,troll-women stumble,men tread the road to Hel,and the sky splits open.

English translation: own translation.

Þá kemr Hlínarharmr annarr fram,er Óðinn ferrvið úlf vega;en bani Beljabjartr at Surti;þá mun Friggjarfalla angan.
Then comes Hlín'ssecond grief,when Odin goesto fight the wolf;and Beli's bane,the bright one, against Surtr;then shall Frigg'sbeloved fall.

English translation: own translation.

Geyr nú Garmr mjökfyr Gnipahelli,festr mun slitnaen freki renna.
Now Garmr howls loudbefore Gnipahellir,the fetters will burstand the wolf run free.

English translation: own translation.

Þá kemr inn miklimögr SigföðurVíðarr vegaat valdýri;lætr hann megi Hveðrungsmund of standahjör til hjarta;þá er hefnt föður.
Then comes the mightyson of Sigfather,Víðarr, to fightthe wild beast;he lets the offspringof Hveðrungr feelthe sword in its heart;so the father is avenged.

English translation: own translation.

Þá kemr inn mærimögr Hlöðynjar,gengr Óðins sonrvið orm vega;drepr af móðiMiðgarðs véurr,munu halir allirheimstöð ryðja;gengr fet níuFjörgynjar burrneppr frá naðriníðs ókvíðnum.
Then comes the renownedson of Hlöðyn,Odin's son goesto fight the serpent;in wrath he slays,Midgard's guardian,all men shallleave the homestead;nine steps walksFjörgyn's sonaway from the serpent,unflinching.

English translation: own translation.

Sól tér sortna,sígr fold í mar,hverfa af himniheiðar stjörnur;geisar eimiok aldrnari,leikr hár hitivið himin sjalfan.
The sun turns black,earth sinks into the sea,from the heavens vanishthe bright stars;steam surgesand life's nourisher,high flame playsagainst heaven itself.

English translation: own translation.

Geyr nú Garmr mjökfyr Gnipahelli,festr mun slitnaen freki renna.
Now Garmr howls loudbefore Gnipahellir,the fetters will burstand the wolf run free.

English translation: own translation.

Fjölð veit hon frœða,fram sé ek lengraum ragna rökrömm sigtíva.
Much she knows of lore,further ahead I seethe doom of the powers,the battle-keen victory-gods.

English translation: own translation.

Sér hon upp komaöðru sinnijörð ór ægiiðja grœna;falla forsar,flýgr örn yfir,sá er á fjallifiska veiðir.
She sees rise upa second timethe earth from the sea,once again green;waterfalls tumble,an eagle soars above,the one that on the mountaincatches fish.

English translation: own translation.

Finnask æsirá Iðavelliok of moldþinurmáttkan dœma,ok minnask þará megindómaok á Fimbultýsfornar rúnar.
The Æsir find each otheron Iðavöllrand speak ofthe mighty earth-serpent,and remember therethe great judgementsand Fimbultýr'sancient runes.

English translation: own translation.

Þar munu eptirundrsamligargullnar töflurí grasi finnask,þærs í árdagaáttar höfðu.
There will afterwardsthe wondrousgolden gaming-piecesbe found in the grass,the ones that in the earliest daysthe families had owned.

English translation: own translation.

Munu ósánirakrar vaxa,böls mun allz batna,Baldr mun koma;búa þeir Höðr ok BaldrHropts sigtóptir,vel, valtívar.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
Unsown fieldswill grow,all ills will be mended,Baldr will come;Höðr and Baldr dwellin Hropt's victory-steads,well, the war-gods.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Þá kná Hœnirhlautvið kjósa,ok burir byggjabrœðra tveggjavindheim víðan.Vituð ér enn, eða hvat?
Then Hœnir canchoose the lot-wood,and the sons of two brothersinhabitthe wide wind-world.Would you know yet more, or what?

English translation: own translation.

Sal sér hon standasólu fegra,gulli þakðan,á Gimlé;þar skulu dyggvardróttir byggjaok of aldrdagaynðis njóta.
A hall she sees standing,fairer than the sun,roofed with gold,at Gimlé;there shall worthyhosts dwelland through all agesenjoy delight.

English translation: own translation.

Þá kemr inn ríkiat regindómi,öflugr, ofan,sá er öllu ræðr.
Then comes the mighty oneto the divine judgement,powerful, from above,who rules over all.

English translation: own translation.

Þar kemr inn dimmidreki fljúgandi,naðr fránn, neðanfrá Niðafjöllum;berr sér í fjöðrum,flýgr völl yfir,Níðhöggr, nái.Nú mun hon søkkvask.
There comes the darkdragon flying,the gleaming serpent, from below,from Niðafjöll;in his feathers he carries,flying over the field,Níðhöggr, corpses.Now she shall sink.

English translation: own translation.

Key concepts

  • ginnunga gap , the yawning void before creation (st. 3)
  • Miðgarðr , the fortified middle enclosure for humans (st. 4)
  • Iðavöllr , the plain where the Æsir gather in the beginning and after Ragnarök (st. 7, 60)
  • Yggdrasill , the world-tree, the ash connecting the nine worlds (st. 2, 19, 47)
  • Urðr , first of the norns, the already-become (st. 20)
  • seiðr , the ritual magic practised by Heiðr (st. 22)
  • Gullveig , the figure burned three times, possibly identical with Freyja (st. 21)
  • Baldr , the bleeding god whose death foreshadows Ragnarök; returns in the new world (st. 31-33, 62)
  • Náströnd , corpse-shore, punishment-place for oath-breakers, murderers, and adulterers (st. 38-39)
  • Ragnarök , the fate of the powers, the world's destruction and rebirth (st. 44-58)
  • Fenrir , Loki's wolf-son, bound with Gleipnir, swallows Odin at Ragnarök (st. 44, 47, 52)
  • Surtr , the black one, who comes from the south with flaming sword (st. 51-52)
  • Naglfar , the ship of dead men's nails, loosed at Ragnarök (st. 48, 50)
  • Gimlé , the gold-roofed hall in the new world, fairer than the sun (st. 64)
  • Níðhöggr , the dragon gnawing Yggdrasil's roots, flying away with corpses in the closing stanza (st. 39, 66)

Interpretive traditions

A What we know

That Völuspá is framed, with the seeress as narrator and Odin as addressee, is uncontested and consistently carried through. The refrain "vituð ér enn, eða hvat?" recurs as a structuring element.

That the poem runs from cosmogony (st. 1-8) through the dwarf catalogue (9-16), the creation of humans (17-18), the norns (19-20), the first war (21-24), mythic history (25-44), Ragnarök (45-58), and a new world (59-66) is a consensus.

That Codex Regius and Hauksbók give different readings of several stanzas (especially 3, 28-29, 54-55, 65) is textually established. Stanza division in the dwarf catalogue and in the Ragnarök section varies between editions.

That Baldr's death (st. 31-33) and Loki's binding (st. 35) are central narrative moments linking the mythic history to Ragnarök is uncontested.

That the Ragnarök description (st. 45-58) follows an escalating structure, from moral dissolution through cosmic collapse to total destruction, is established in scholarship.

B What we think we know

That Völuspá carries Christian influence is widely accepted, but the degree is debated. The new world of Ragnarök (st. 59-64), the Gimlé passage (st. 64), and "the mighty one" (st. 65) in particular have parallels to Revelation and New Testament eschatology. Dronke (1997, II) argues for a late 11th-century composition date on precisely these grounds.

That Gullveig (st. 21) is identical with Freyja is a widespread reading (Turville-Petre 1964, 159), but it rests mainly on the name's association with gold and Freyja's link to wealth.

Whether the seeress in stanza 22 (Heiðr) is the same figure who speaks throughout, or a different figure, is a live question in reading (Lindow 2001, 315).

Whether Víðarr's vengeance (st. 54) happens with a sword (Codex Regius) or by stepping into the wolf's jaw (Snorri's version, Gylfaginning ch. 51) is a textual variant without consensus.

That the dwarf catalogue (st. 9-16) was originally an independent text inserted into Völuspá is a widespread hypothesis. The interrupting closing formula in stanza 12 ("now have I the dwarves rightly reckoned") supports this.

That the poem has a cyclical structure (Iðavöllr in st. 7 and 60, golden gaming-pieces in st. 8 and 61) tying the new world to the old is accepted as a literary feature, but whether it reflects a cyclical conception of time or merely a poetic figure is disputed.

C What we do not know

What place Völuspá held in pre-Christian religious practice, if any, is unknown. Whether it was a ritual text, a court performance, a mnemonic for oral transmission, or a late medieval composition for a Christian reading audience is unsettled.

Whether the poem originally ended with stanza 66 (Níðhöggr with corpses) or closed with the new world and Gimlé is contested both textually and interpretively. Codex Regius and Hauksbók arrange the closing differently.

The identity of "the mighty one" in stanza 65, who comes "from above" and "rules over all", is entirely open. Christ, an unknown pagan god, Odin in renewed form, or a poetic abstraction have all been proposed. Hauksbók omits the stanza. No consensus exists.

Whether Garmr (st. 44, 49, 57) and the Fenris-wolf are the same being or separate is unclear. Lindow (2001, 137) discusses the question without reaching a conclusion.

Whether Ragnarök's cosmic fire (st. 56) is a native conception or a borrowing from Christian apocalyptic cannot be determined from the extant sources.

Sources and further reading

Primary sources

  • Neckel, Gustav, och Hans Kuhn. 1983. Edda: Die Lieder des Codex Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern. 5. uppl. Heidelberg: Winter.
  • Dronke, Ursula. 1969–2011. The Poetic Edda, vols. I–III. Oxford: Clarendon / Oxford University Press.

Translations

  • Bellows, Henry Adams (trans.). 1923. The Poetic Edda. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. (PD)
  • Thorpe, Benjamin (trans.). 1866. Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða / The Edda of Sæmund the Learned. London: Trübner. (PD)
  • Larrington, Carolyne (trans.). 2014. The Poetic Edda. Rev. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scholarly works

  • Lindow, John. 2001. Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Simek, Rudolf. 1993. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer.
  • Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1994–1998. Prolonged Echoes: Old Norse Myths in Medieval Northern Society, vols. I–II. Odense: Odense University Press.
  • Turville-Petre, E. O. G. 1964. Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  • McKinnell, John. 2014. Essays on Eddic Poetry. Ed. Donata Kick and John D. Shafer. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.